2. Hinduism
I. Origins: Merging of Harappan and Aryan Traditions
A. Pre-Aryan India: Harappan Civilization
(c.
2500 - 1500 B.C.E.)
- Developed in the Indus River valleys between the
major cities of Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro
1. Excavation of Harappa Cities
a) Focus on bathing and cleanliness > ritual
purity
-
cities laid out in a square grid pattern
-
well-furnished with wells, a piped water
supply, bathrooms
and drains
b)
importance of religion and the priesthood
> imposing temple
structures
c)
social division by occupation
2. Religious belief
- polytheistic
> male deities with horns
> female figurines > mother goddesses
-
focus on water, fertility and the veneration
of sacred animals such
as cows
-
early representations of the Hindu god, Shiva
> god of the harvest,
of the cycle of birth, life,
death and rebirth?
B. Pre-India Aryans (from c.1750 B.C.E.)
1. Indo- Aryan / Indo- European > a linguistic
group
2. Aryan Society
-
semi-nomadic, pastoral, and warrior people
- organized by tribes and led by chieftains
(rajas)
-
expert breeders of livestock > domesticated
the horse
-
invented the spoked wheel used on horse-
drawn chariots in
battle
-
made weapons and tools of copper and bronze
3. Religion
- polytheistic > animistic
- sacrifice > primary from of worship
- soma
- elaborate rituals > Horse Sacrifice Ritual
C. Aryan Migrations into India (c. 1750 B. C. E. and
1200 B. C. E.)
II. Vedic Era
A. The Vedas (compiled between c. 1750 B.
C. E.
and 400 B. C. E.
-
sacred texts comprised of four books:
1. Rig-Veda
2. Sama-Veda
3. Yajur-Veda
4. Atharva-Veda
B. The Vedic World View
1. Essence of Humanity > Atman
2. The Universe > comprised of three realms:
- earth
- atmosphere
- heaven
3. Basic Order of Things > Rita
4. The Ultimate Source of Things
- Purusha > sacrificed and his body parts used
to
create the natural
world and humans
- Divine Sexuality > intercourse between the
Sky
Father and Earth
Mother produced the universe
5. Divas (gods)
- Indra > god of thunder,
god of war, conqueror
of Vrtra
- Varuna > god of the sky,
preserves the order of
the universe and
forgives sinners
- Agni > god of fire and of the priests
- Vishnu and Shiva > not important gods at this
time
III. Classical Hinduism or Brahminism
(c.400 B.C.E. - 200 C.E.)
A. Changes in Aryan Society
1. Expansion of the Caste system:
a) Aryan System of Varnas (all twice born):
- Brahmins (Priests)
- Kshatriyas (Warriors)
- Vaishyas (Commoners)
- In India were added Shudras (Servile
workers
> farmers,
artisans, laborers) not fully Aryan,
born only once
b) the Varnas were subdivided into occupational
groups: Harappan
System of Jati
- jati > comprised of a large extended
family that shared
an occupation
- self-governing
- membership determined by birth
2. Settling down of the tribes and emergence of
kingdoms
3. Growing importance of the Brahmins
B. Upanishads (compiled c.800 - 300 B.C.E.)
> a reaction to the power of the Brahmins
1. Brahman (The Monism Premise)
- there is only one reality and that is
Brahman,
all else is an
illusion
- living beings are souls (atman) – part of the
great ocean of souls
that make up Brahman
2. Karma
- the impact of one’s actions and thought in
this
life and the next
3. Samsara (“to wander across")
- atman (one’s life force) continues to live in
another body after one
dies
4. Moksha
- salvation > becoming free of the cycle of
death
and rebirth
5. Meditation rather than sacrifice is the means of
achieving salvation
C. Law of Manu > contains social and ethical standards
1. Defined the duty of each Varna (dharma)
2. Defined the stages of life for a man
- student > chaste, studies with a guru
- householder > married, provider for his
family
- hermit > pursue non attachment to this
- wandering beggar
3. Women
- Women under the authority of men
- Marriages were arranged and sizeable
dowries and bride
prices were paid
- Women could not own property
- Women were no longer educated
- Sati (Suttee)
4. Cattle were to be protected and not killed
5. Sacred time > cyclical
- Brahma created the world
- peace, abundance, morality
- despite the intervention of Vishnu, the
world decays
- famine, wars and immorality
- Shiva destroys the world; the souls
are suspended
- after a period of rest, the world begins
again
D. The Axis Age (Axial Age): The Challenge of
Jainism and Buddhism
(600 - 500 B. C. E.)
1. These belief systems
- rejected the system of sacrifices vs. the
Brahmins
- rejected the Vedas
- rejected the caste system
2. Jainism sought salvation through extreme
asceticism and respect for
all life
3. Buddhism sought salvation through the
middle way and right
action
4. Both were later absorbed into Hinduism
5. The Mauryan Empire (322 - 185 B. C. E )
- founded by a regional ruler, Chandragupta
Maurya
- Ashoka (r. 268- 232 B.C.E.)
> disturbed by his ruthless conquest of
Kalinga,
he embraced
Buddhism
> in place of force
as the principle of his rule, he
defined the
state’s function as providing for the
well-being of his
subjects
> built public works, roads, inns,
hospitals, veterinary
clinics
> outlawed war, encouraged vegetarianism,
limited
animal sacrifice
> advocated religious tolerance
> Brahmin loss of influence, but the fall
of the Mauryan
Empire will be
followed by a revival of Hinduism
and a return of
Brahman influence
E. Bhagavad Gita
(compiled between 200 B. C. E. and
200 C. E.)
> part of the epic
poem, the Mahabharata
- in this section Arjuna is reluctant to go to war;
his charioteer,
Krishma (Vishnu
in disguise), reminds Arjuna of his duty and tells
him that life is an illusion
- Vishnu
also reveals three spiritual paths:
1. Karma-Yoga > the Way of Activity (dharma)
2. Bhakti-Yoga > the Way of Devotion
- love for God in a personal form
3. Jnana-Yoga > the Way of Knowledge
IV. Post Classical Hinduism (200 - 1600 C.E.)
A. Characteristics
1. Rise of Devotional Cults (Way of Devotion)
- while the existence of many gods will be
recognized, worship
will focus on a few major
deities who appear in numerous forms
- worship will focus on love and devotion to these
gods rather than
sacrifices offered by
priests
- literature will focus on stories related to these
gods in place of
great historical epics
- the religious and cultural hero will now be the
ascetic rather than
the warrior
2. Development of Philosophical Systems (Way of Knowledge)
3. Hindi response to Buddhism and Jainism
B. Devotion to Three Major Gods
1. Brahma – creator of the world
- received little attention, no cult, no
devotees
- his wife is Sarasvati, goddess of knowledge,
speech, poetry and
wisdom
2. Vishnu > the preserver, god of love, benevolence
and
forgiveness
a) noted for his love of play; he plays with
humans and
enjoys tricks and
pranks, but he also cares about humans
and has appeared on
earth a number of times in nine
different forms
(avatars):
- Krishna
- Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha
- Matsya > the fish who saved Manu from
the flood
- the tenth avatar of Vishnu will be
Kalkin who will
bring time to
an end, punish the wicked and reward
the good
b) Worship
- Vishnu recognized as the ultimate
reality and his
devotees
(Vaishnavites) emphasize Vishnu’s love
and grace and are
noted for their deep love of the
God whom they
praise in song and poems
c) Lakshmi > Wife if Vishnu; goddess of
fertility, wealth
and
victory; mediator between humans and Vishnu
- noted for her complete devotion to
Vishnu despite
his
infidelities
-
Ramayana > an epic that celebrated
the love between
Rama (Vishnu)
and Sita (Lakshmi) who is kidnapped by
Rawana, king
of the demons, and rescued by her husband
3. Shiva – the destroyer, god of death, destruction
and
disease; also god of
dance and god of vegetable,
animal and human
reproduction and sexuality
death > rebirth)
a) Worship – Shivism
- Shivites believe
Shiva is the ultimate reality and
humans are
thought to be separate through
ignorance,
karma and illusion
- goal is to achieve union with Shiva
and thus
moksha through
worshiping Shiva and maintaining
his temples,
meditation, study with a guru and
repeating a
special mantra
b) Shiva has numerous consorts, most
popular:
- Kali (or Durga) > almost more
terrible than Shiva
- Paravati > a fertility goddess who
represents the
loving and
perfect wife and mother
> her role is to interrupt Shiva’s
meditation so
that he
can use his power to help the world
C. Way of Knowledge
- philosophical systems for those with the
inclination and ability to
study the sacred writings
- these systems reject monism in favor of dualism
while accepting
the doctrines of
reincarnation and the goal of moksha
1. The Yoga System (Yoga Sutra
- founded in 2nd
century B.C.E.)
- goal is to “yoke” the individual spirit to
god (atman to Brahman)
- through meditation in order to achieve a
state of trance or
superconscious to
become one with Brahman
2. Vedanta System
(founded in 1st century B.C.E.)
- initially monistic accepting Brahman as the
only reality but
rejects dogmas and
rituals focusing on spiritual practices
- Advaita Vedanta founded in the 9th century by
Shankara
maintained monism but
advocated the worshiping of Shiva
as the best
representation of Brahman
- Ramanjua envisioned a qualified dualism in
the 11th century
teaching that the
human soul and divine soul were one, but
somehow separate
(similar to the interdependence of the
human body and soul
for existence) and he advocated the
worship of the gods
- Madhva in the 12 century argued for dualism
so people can
properly worship the
separate nature of god
V. Muslim Influences in India
A. Spread of Islam into India from the 8th century
- Delhi Sultanate established in the 13th century
- Moghal Empire established by Barbur who invaded India in 1526
- under his successors Moghal authority extended to
almost all of India
B. Differences in Hindu and Muslim Belief Systems
- polytheism vs. monotheism
- use of images of the gods vs. prohibition against
images
of Allah
- sacredness of cows vs. practice of sacrificing
cattle and
other animals
- caste system vs. belief in equality before Allah
C. Akbar (1556-1605)
- developed a new religion, Divine Faith, which
combined
elements of several
religious belief systems in an attempt
to establish a unifying
state religion, but failed
D. Impact of Islam on Hinduism
- no impact on Hindu belief system, but adoption of
many aspects
of Muslim culture such as
art, architecture, sciences and dress
- Sikhism > 16th century attempt to reconcile
Hinduism and Islam,
failed but remains an
important religion
- Political and religious differences between
Hindus and Muslims
contribute to one of the
major problems India faces today
- Conflict over Kashmir
VI. Modern Hinduism
A. Impact of Christianity and Europeans
1. Arrival of Europeans
- 1510 > Portuguese conquered Goa
- 1616 > English East India Company establishes
a trading
base at
Surat and later Madras and Calcutta
- end of 18th century > most of the India was
controlled by
the East India Company
- 1856 > India declared a colony of England
2. Missionaries
- Protestant missionaries became active in 19th
century
- William Carey (1761-1834)
> Baptist missionary who was also concerned
about
improving living
and educational standards
> introduced modern printing, opposed sati
and child
marriages
(outlawed in 1829), helped found Serampore
College and served
as professor of Oriental languages
B. Religious Reformers
1. Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833) > “Father of Modern
India”
- believed years of Muslim rule had led to the
decline of
Hinduism into
polytheism and idolatry
- a student of many religious traditions, he
embraced monotheism
and appreciated many
of the teachings of Christianity but did
not believe Jesus was
God
- he looked to the British to help bring reform
to India and especially
worked toward the
outlawing of sati and advocated women’s
equality
- founded the Brahmo Samaj (Society of God) - a
universal
religion combining a
monotheistic form of Hinduism with
the best that Roy
found in other traditions
2. Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886)
- a former priest of Kali and follower of non-
dualistic Vedanta
- believed behind all religions there is a
single reality. God, and
the duty of humankind
is to develop their inherent moral and
spiritual potential
- his ideas were spread by his disciple,
Vivekanada, who came to
Chicago in 1893 to
speak at the World’s Parliament of Religions
becoming the first
known Hindu missionary in the modern world
as he traveled in the
U. S. and England where his message was
well receive
- a disciple, Paramahansa Ananda (1893-1952)
came to the U.S
and in 1920 founded
the Self-Realization Fellowship which
teaches Vedanta
philosophy inspired by Hindu religious texts and
Christian gospels
3. Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948)
- as a child deeply influenced by Hinduism and
later exposed to
Jainism, Islam and
Zoroastrianism
- as a law student in England was influenced by
Christianity and
especially the Sermon
on the Mount as well the writings of
Henry David Thoreau
- these contributed to his religious idealism,
practice of civil
disobedience and
ahimsa (non-injury of life)
- he opposed the caste system, especially its
impact on the
Untouchables and
advocated greater equality for women
- he used religion as a means to unite the
Indians and moral
force as the means to
resist British rule
C. Hinduism Today
1. Need to deal with issues of modernity, urbanism and
birth control
2. Conflict between Hindus and Muslims need to be
resolved
3. Status as a minority outside India
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