5. Chinese
Religions
I. Early Religious Concepts
A. Polytheism
- most important of the many gods were those of the
heaven and the earth to whom the emperor
offered sacrifices in the Spring and Fall to ensure good
harvests
- sacrifices were also offered to the Shen (good
spirits found in bright, lighted spaces and associated
with
the sun and Spring) to protect against the Kuei (evil
spirits associated with dark, gloomy places)
- grain
and animals with some evidence of humans were sacrificed
B. Yin and Yang
- Yin > the negative force in nature: darkness,
coolness, femaleness. dampness, the earth, moon and
shadows
- Yang > the positive force in nature: lightness,
brightness, warmth, maleness, dryness and the sun
- all the natural world consisted of a combination
of these forces; all was well when these forces were
in
harmony
C. Filial Piety and Ancestor Worship
1. Filial Piety
- “Old” > a term of respect
- the elderly father/mother dominate the home
- children obligated to support, obey and
properly bury their elders
2. Ancestor Worship
- after death children are expected to maintain
their parents graves and memories, and to offer
sacrifices to them
- the deceased ancestors can help (or hurt)
family members because they are in contact with the
spirit world
D. Divination
1. Oracle Bones
2. Casting coins or plant stalks and reading
patterns
3. I Ching (The Book of Changes)
II. Shang-Ti
- after the defeat of the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 B. C.
E. ), the Chou (1122-256 B. C. E.) claimed
that
they had the Mandate of Heaven
- Shang-ti >
a patron ancestor of Shang Dynasty that the Chou elevated to
the status of High God
III. Axial Age
A. Political and Social Disorder
1. Decline of the Chou
-
usurpation of king’s authority by the vassal lords
- 771 B. C. E. the capital was moved from Xian
to Loyang
- nature of political authority?
2. Social instability
> social mobility increased among the nobility
as new opportunities developed: mercenaries,
merchants, teachers administrators
3. Economic Disruption
> rise of cities, development of new
technologies and trade challenged traditional agrarian
society
B. Taoism
- a philosophy of nature, a religion, a system of
magical practices
1. Lao-tzu (b. 6th century B. C. E.)
- The Tao Te Ching (The ClassicWay and the
Power of Virtue)
2. Teachings of the Early Taoist Philosophers
a) Tao
> is the source of all creation, the basic
unity behind the universe and the cosmic force that
governs the world
> rather than struggling against the Tao,
one should blend with it and be guided by it
> an understanding of the Tao can be
discerned through leading introspection and quiet reflection
on nature
> once the Tao is discerned, humans can
live in harmony with it
b) Life is to be lived simply
- distractions such as striving for
accomplishments or involvement with the complications of
civilization are to be avoided
- communities and governments are to be
small
- pacifism is advocated since there is no
point in engaging in war as all is fleeting
- the ideal is to live life as innocently
as a child
c) Pomp and glory are to be despised
- they are the source of strife and discord
in society
- pride invites destruction > “the tallest
tree will be the first felled by the woodsman” so it is
better to be meek, small or imperfect
3. Later Developments
a) Division:
- one group followed the philosophical
writings of Lao-tzu
- the other sought immortality (an
extension of present life through various way: diet,
fasting,
breath control and alchemy
b) Incorporation of gods
- alchemists began to offer sacrifices to
the god of the stove, Tsao ChÜn, who by the
3rd century C. E. became the first god
of Taoism, many others followed
c) Collapse of the Han Dynasty (206 B. C. E. -
220 C. E. )
- decline in traditional beliefs and spread
of Taoism to the masses
- as Taoism spread it acquired gods,
morality, temples, priests, rituals, etc.
4. Buddhism and Taoism
- Mahayana Buddhism spread widely in China by
the 4th century
- initially the two cooperated, but by ninth
century they were rivals and persecutions followed
(influence over political leaders at issue)
- syncretism: Taoism borrowed from Mahayana
Buddhism teachings of an afterlife with heavens,
hells and judgment, monasticism, nunneries
5. Taoist Influence on the Arts
C. Confucianism
- a “possible world religion”
1. Life of Confucius (551-479 B. C. E.)
- born in the state of Lu, of aristocratic
descent
- became a tutor specializing in history,
divination and the art of good governance
- developed an ethical and moral system by
which the state and society could achieve order and
stability
2. Teachings of Confucius
- The Analects
a) “The Way of Former Kings”
- found his models in the early Zhou rulers
- true princes derive their authority not
by birth, but from their education and talents, and they
rule in the interest of their subjects
b) Goal: the prince must become the embodiment
of the ideals of humane conduct; he rules by
example:
- ren > the ideal of virtue that one
strives towards encompassing love, benevolence, compassion
and sympathy towards one’s fellow man
- tê > the power derived from virtue; a
good person exercises virtue and others will follow
- li > the code of gentlemanly conduct by
which one governs one’s life
c) The Confucian social order was based on the
concept of Filial Piety and reflected in the Five
Relations by which a senior person owes affection and care
to a junior person in return for
respect and obedience:
Ruler subject
Father son
Older brother younger brother
Husband wife
Friend friend
- Patriarchal Social Order
3. Confucius’s Teachings
> not concerned with spiritual matters, but
ethical and moral problems of man’s relation-ship with
his fellow man
> provided the basis and guidelines for the
legitimate exercise of political authority
> devised a social system that would provide
Chinese society with stability and order
> His thoughts influenced other philosophers
and various schools of Confucianism developed
D. Mencius’ teachings:
a) Unlike Confucius
- he found his model in the earliest kings,
before the practice of hereditary rule
- he believed anyone, not just princes, could
achieve the ideals of humane conduct
b) Basis of his teachings: humans were innately
good
-
the realization of good comes with self- cultivation and
self-knowledge
- the ruler should be concerned with the well-
being of the common people > need for economic
and social justice
- a ruler who does not rule in the interest of
the people cannot be considered a legitimate ruler
E. Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.)
1. Life:
- a learned man like Confucius and Mencius, but
had also served as an administrator in the
government
2. His teaching:
- Like Confucius, looked to the early Zhou
rulers as a model and admired Confucius’s concept of
virtue
- Unlike Mencius, believed humans were innately
evil interested only in pursuing their own
self-interest
- But with the proper education and moral
training, they could become good
F. The Legalists > Legalist Sanction
- Influenced by the work of Xunzi; unlike the
previous thinkers were not concerned with moral issues,
rather dealt with reality
- the role of the king was to increase the state’s
power and wealth, while the role of his subjects was
to
serve the state
- the king had absolute power, was above the law,
and he dictated laws to control his subjects’
behavior
- through rewards and harsh punishment, obedience
of his subjects was obtained
G. Han Dynasty (206 B. C. E. -20 C. E.
1. favored the Confucians
- 136 > Confucians were put in charge of the
education of Chinese children and instituted Civil
Service exams
2. Cult of Confucius
- 195 B. C. E. > Liu Bang, the first emperor of
China visited the grave of Confucius
- 145 B. C. E. > a temple was built to honor
Confucius in his hometown
- 8 B. C. E. > titles and land were given to
his descendents
- by the 6th century C. E. every temples were
found throughout China and some came to consider
Confucius a god
IV. Taoism and Confucianism Today
A. Religion was suppressed after the 1949 Revolution
B. Since Mao’s death in 1977 the government is more
tolerant of Buddhism, Islam, Catholics, Protestants,
Taoism,
Buddhism and Islam
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